不定式
　　形式

	主動形式	被動形式
一般式	to do	to be done
完成式	to have done	to have been done
進行式	to be doing
完成進行式	to have been doing

　　完成式: 不定式的一般形式所表示的動作, 通常與主要謂語表示的動作(狀態)同時(或幾乎同時)發生, 或是在它之后發生. 假如不定式所表示的動作, 在謂語所表示的動作(狀態)之前發生, 就要用不定式的完成式.
　　I am glad to have seen your mother (= I am glad I have seen your mother).
　　(比較: I am glad to see you.)
　　He is said to have written a new book about workers.
　　He pretended not to have seen me.
　　進行式: 如果主要謂語表示的動作(狀態)發生時, 不定式表示的動作正在進行, 這時要用不定式的進行式.
　　You are not supposed to be working. You haven’t quite recovered yet.
　　We didn’t expect you to be waiting for us here.
　　He pretended to be listening attentively.
　　完成進行式: 在謂語所表示的時間之前一直進行的動作, 就要用不定式的完成進行式.
　　The struggle was known to have been going for twenty years.
　　We are happy to have been working with you.
　　被動式: 當不定式的邏輯上的主語是不定式所表示的動作的承受者時, 不定式一般要用被動形式.
　　It is an honour for me to be asked to speak here.
　　She hated to be flattered.
　　He wanted the letter to be typed at once.
　　This is bound to be found out.
　　There are a lot of things to be done.
　　She was too young to be assigned such work.
　　功用: 不定式可以作主語 (a), 賓語 (b), 表語 (c), 定語 (d) 或是狀語 (e).
　　a. To scold her would not be just.
　　b. We are planning to build a reservoir here.
　　c. One of our main tasks now is to mechanize agriculture.
　　d. Do you have anything to declare?
　　e. We have come to learn from you.
　　不帶to 的不定式:
　　在“動詞+ 賓語+不定式”結構中, 如果動詞是表示感覺意義的see, hear, watch, smell, feel, notice等, 或是表示“致使”意義的 have, make, let等, 其后的不定式結構不帶to.
　　John made her tell him everything.
　　這類結構轉換為被動語態時, 后面的不帶to 的不定式一般還原為帶to 的不定式.
　　She was made to tell him everything.
　　在 had better, had best, would rather, would sooner, would just as soon, might (just) as well, cannot but 等搭配之后, 動詞不定式也不帶to.
　　I’d rather not have eggs and bacon for breakfast.
　　They cannot but accept his term.
　　在make do, make believe, let drop, let fall, let fly, let slip, let drive, let go of, let there be, hear say, hear tell, leave go of等固定搭配中, 用不帶to的動詞不定式.
　　John let fly a torrent of abuse at me.
　　I’ve heard tell of him.
　　在動詞help(或help +賓語)之后可用不帶to的不定式, 也可用帶to的不定式.
　　Can I help (to) lift this heavy box?
　　在介詞except, but 之后, 如果其前有動詞do的某種形式, 不定式一般不帶to, 反之帶to.
　　There is nothing to do except wait till it stops raining.
　　Smith will do anything but work on a farm.
　　There’s no choice but to wait till it stops raining.
　　連詞 rather than, sooner than 置于句首時, 其后的不定式不帶to.
　　Rather than push the book back as he wanted to do, he forced himself to pick it up.
　　出現在句中其他位置時, 其后的不定式有時帶to, 有時不帶to.
　　He decided to write rather than telephone.
　　The manager believes it is important to invest in new machinery rather than to increase wages.
　　用作補語的動詞不定式, 如果主語是由“all + 關系分句”，“thing +關系分句”，“what分句”或“thing +不定式結構”等構成，并帶有do的某種形式，這時，作為主語補語的不定式可以省to，也可以不省.
　　What he will do is (to) spoil the whole thing.
　　All you do now is complete the form
　　The only thing I can do now is go on by myself.
　　The thing to do now is clear up this mess.
　　The least I can do is drive everybody else closer to the issue.
　　不定式的其他用法
　　too…to 結構通常表示否定意義:
　　She was too young to understand all that.
　　enough…to結構則表示肯定意義:
　　She was not old enough to understand all that.
　　not too, but too, all too, only too等和不定式連用時,不定式一般不表示否定意義:
　　He’s only too pleased to help her.
　　so…as (to)這種結構也可用不定式作狀語:
　　Be so kind as to drop in some time when you are free.
　　如果要說明不定是表示的動作是誰做的, 可以在不定式前加一個for引起的短語:
　　It is not hard for one to do a bit of good.
　　It is a great honour for us to be present at this rally.
　　在以某些形容詞(如 kind, good, nice, wise, unwise, clever, silly, wrong, right, foolish, stupid, careless, considerate, rude, naughty, impolite等)作表語時, 不定式前可加一個of引起的短語, 來說明不定式指的是誰的情況:
　　It’s kind of you to think so much of us.
　　(It is) Awfully good of you to come and meet us.
　　It’s very nice of you to be so considerate.
　　It’s unwise of them to turn down the proposal.
　　V+ing形式(現在分詞及動名詞)
　　形式
　　完成式: 如果要表示動名詞代表的動作在謂語所表示的動作之前發生, 通常用動名詞的完成形式.
　　He didn’t mention having met me.
　　I regret not having taken her advice.
　　在某些動詞后(或成語中), 常用(或可以用)動名詞的一般形式, 盡管動作是在謂語所表示的動作之前發生的.
　　Excuse me for coming late.
　　I don’t remember ever seeing him anywhere.
　　現在分詞的完成式主要用在狀語中, 表示這動作在謂語所表示的動作之前發生.
　　Having been there many times, he offered to be our guide.
　　Having found the cause, they were able to propose a remedy.
　　另外, 獨立結構也可用現在分詞的完成形式.
　　The guests having left, they resumed their discussion.
　　The children, having eating their fill, were allowed to leave the table.
　　被動式: 當一個動名詞邏輯上的主語所表示的是這動作的對象時, 動名詞一般要用被動形式.
　　His being neglected by the host added to his uneasiness.
　　He couldn’t bear being made fun of like that.
　　但要注意, 在want, need, deserve, require 等動詞后, 盡管表示的是被動的意思, 卻用動名詞的主動形式.
　　My pen needs filling.
　　The point deserves mentioning.
　　This problem requires studying with great care.
　　在worth這個形容詞后情形也是這樣.
　　Her method is worth trying.
　　現在分詞的被動式可以用來作定語, 賓語補足語, 狀語及用于獨立結構中.
　　This is one of the experiments being carried on in our laboratory.
　　You’ll find the topic being discussed everywhere.
　　Being asked to give a performance, she couldn’t very well refuse.
　　These are sold at reduced prices, the defects always being pointed out to the customers.
　　完成被動式: 如果表示的動作在謂語表示的動作之前發生, 有時需要用動名詞的完成被動式.
　　I don’t remember having ever been given a chance to try this method.
　　但在多數情況下都避免使用這一形式, 而用一般被動形式代替, 以免句子顯得累贅.
　　現在分詞的完成被動式一般用來作狀語或用于獨立結構中.
　　Having been given such a good chance, how could she let it slip away?
　　The decision having been made, the next problem was how to make a good plan.
　　All the compositions having been written and collected, the teacher sent the students home.
　　句法功用
　　作主語:
　　Walking is good exercise.
　　It’s nice talking to you.
　　There is no denying the fact that the new method has greatly raised labour productivity.
　　作賓語:
　　Your shoes need polishing.
　　You mustn’t delay sending the tractors over.
　　He avoided giving us a definite answer.
　　作介詞賓語: 動名詞作介詞賓語用的時候最多. 它常可以用在某些成語后面, 常見的有: insist on, persist in, think of, dream of, object to, suspect…of, accuse…of, charge…with, hear of, approve of, prevent…from, keep…from, stop…from, refrain from, be engaged in, look forward to, opposed to, depend on, thank…for, feel like, excuse…for, aim at, devote…to, set about, spend…in, get (be) used to, be fond of, be capable of, be afraid of, be tired of, be sick of, succeed in, be interested in, feel (be) ashamed of, be proud of, be keen on, be responsible for.
　　作表語:
　　The real problem is getting to know the needs of the people.
　　動名詞和不定式都可以作主語或表語. 一般說來, 在表示抽象的一般的行為時多用動名詞; 在表示具體某詞動作, 特別是將來的動作時, 多用不定式.
　　作賓語補足語: 分詞可以在see, hear, notice, watch, feel, find, keep, get, have等動詞后作賓語補足語.
　　The words immediately set us all laughing.
　　Once we caught him dozing off in class.
　　His remark left me wondering what he was driving at.
　　在see, hear, feel, watch, notice等動詞后, 及可用現在分詞, 也可用不定式構成賓語補足語. 用現在分詞時, 表示動作正在發生, 用不定式時表示動作發生了.
　　Do you hear someone knocking at the door?
　　Yes, I did. I heard him knock three times.
　　作狀語: 現在分詞作狀語時, 通常都表示主語正在進行的另一動作, 來對謂語表示的主要動作加以修飾或作為陪襯.
　　I ran out of the house shouting.
　　I got home, feeling very tired.
　　Driving to Chicago that night, I was struck by a sudden thought.
　　現在分詞短語有時可以用作狀語表示原因, 相當于一個表示原因的狀語從句.
　　Not knowing her address, we couldn’t get in touch with her.
　　Seeing nobody at home, she decided to leave them a note.
　　Having already seen the film twice, she didn’t want to go to the cinema.
　　現在分詞短語有時可用作時間狀語, 相當于when引起的從句:
　　Seeing those pictures, he couldn’t help thinking of those memorable days they spent together.
　　如果兩個動作是完全同時發生的, 多用when 或while加分詞這種結構.
　　Be careful when crossing the street.
　　When leaving the airport, they waved again and again to us.
　　She got to know them while attending a conference in Beijing.
　　前面帶有代詞或名詞的動名詞結構: 一個動名詞前面可以加一個物主代詞(或名詞的所有格結構), 來表示這個動名詞邏輯上的主語.
　　Their coming to help was a great encouragement to us.
　　Our sole worry is your relying too much on yourself.
　　Do you mind my reading your paper?
　　They insisted on my staying there for supper.
　　如果不是在句子開頭, 這個結構常常可以用名詞的普通格(或人稱代詞賓格), 這比用所有格更自然一些.
　　I don’t mind him going.
　　She hates people losing their temper.
　　只能用動名詞作賓語的動詞: suggest, finish, avoid, stop, can’t help, mind, admit, enjoy, leave off, require, postpone, put off, delay, practise, fancy, excuse, pardon, advise, consider, deny, endure, escape, miss
　　既可用動名詞, 也可用不定式作賓語的動詞: love, like, hate, dislike, begin, start, continue, intend, attempt, can’t bear, propose, want, need, remember, forget, regret, neglect, try, deserve, can’t afford等.
　　有時兩種結構之間意義差別不大, 有時卻有不同的意思. 在remember, regret, want, try等詞后差別是比較明顯的.
　　I remember seeing her once somewhere.
　　I must remember to take my notebooks with me.
　　I regret not having accepted your advice.
　　I regret to say I haven’t given you enough help.
　　She doesn’t want (need) to come.
　　The house wants (needs) cleaning.
　　We must try to get everything done in time.
　　Let’s try doing the work some other way.
　　懸垂修飾: 分詞作狀語時, 表示的必須是主語的一個動作或狀態.
　　Walking through the park, we saw a lot of flowers. (walking是we的動作, 正確)
　　Walking through the park, the flowers looked very beautiful. (錯誤)
　　Standing on the tower, we could see the whole city. (正確)
　　Standing on the tower, the whole village could be seen. (錯誤)
　　分詞
　　意義: 過去分詞通常來自及物動詞, 帶有被動意義和完成意義; 而現在分詞有的來自及物動詞, 有的來自不及物動詞, 通常帶有主動意義和未完成意義.
　　frozen food a freezing wind
　　a bored traveller a boring journey
　　a lost cause a losing battle
　　a conquered army a conquering army
　　a finished article the last finishing touch
　　the spoken word a speaking bird
　　a closed shop the closing hour
　　a recorded talk a recording machine
　　來自不及物動詞的過去分詞很少能單獨用作前置修飾語, 能作這樣用的僅限于下面幾個詞, 僅表示完成意義, 不表示被動意義.
　　the risen sun, fallen leaves, faded/withered flowers, returned students, retired workers, departed friends, escaped prisoners, the vanished jewels, newly-arrived visitors
　　用作后置修飾語的過去分詞一般都帶有修飾語或其他成分, 在意義上相當于關系分句.
　　Most of the people invited to the reception were old friends.
　　句法作用
　　作定語: distinguished guest 貴賓, unknown heroes 無名英雄, armed forces武裝部隊, canned food罐頭食品, boiled water開水, steamed bread饅頭, stricken area災區
　　分詞還可構成合成詞作定語: simply-furnished room陳設簡單的房間, clear-cut answer明確的答復, highly-developed industry高度發展的工業, heartfelt thanks衷心的感謝, hand-made goods手工制品, man-made satellite人造衛星
　　作補足語: 可以帶過去分詞作賓語補足語的動詞有:
　　see, hear, feel, find, think等表示感覺和心理狀態的動詞.
　　I saw the students assembled in the hall.
　　We found her greatly changed.
　　make, get, have, keep等表示”致使”意義的動詞:
　　I have my hair cut every ten days.
　　She got her bad tooth pulled out.
　　Please keep us informed of the latest developments.
　　like, want, wish, order等表示希望, 要求, 命令等意義的動詞:
　　I don’t want any of you (to be) involved in the scandal.
　　He won’t like such questions (to be) discussed at the meeting.
　　過去分詞短語常用作狀語, 修飾謂語, 很多都說明動作發生的背景或情況.
　　Guided by these principles, they went on with the work,
　　Delighted with her work, they made her the general manager.
　　過去分詞短語也可作狀語表示原因, 相當于一個表示原因的狀語從句.
　　Influenced by his example, they performed countless good deeds.
　　有時也可說明動作發生的時間, 相當于一個表示時間的狀語從句.
　　This method, tried in areas near Shanghai, resulted in a marked rise in total production.
　　間或也可表示一個假設的情況, 相當于一個條件從句.
　　Given closer analysis, we can see this is totally wrong.
　　偶爾也可用來代替一個“讓步”狀語從句.
　　Picked 20 years a year, it grows tired only after 40 or 50 years.
　　獨立結構: 在用分詞短語作狀語時, 它邏輯上的主語一般必須與句子的主語一.致. 但有時它也可以有自己獨立的邏輯上的主語, 這種結構稱為獨立結構, 一般表示一種伴隨的動作或情況.
　　He rushed into the room, his face covered with sweat.
　　有時可以表示時間:
　　Late that autumn, his work finished, he prepared to return to his institute.
　　表示原因:
　　Her eyes dimmed with tears, she did not see him enter.
　　條件:
　　All things considered, her paper is of greater value than yours.